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 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service
Forensics Laboratory
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INTRODUCTION | WHAT IS IVORY? | THE IVORIES | IDENTIFYING IVORY | GLOSSARY NATURAL IVORY (Loxodonta africana, Elephas maximus, Mammuthus spp.) Elephant and mammoth tusk ivory comes from the two modified upper incisors of extant and extinct members of the same order (Proboscidea). African and Asian elephants are both extant. Mammoths have been extinct for 10,000 years. Because of the geographical range in Alaska and Siberia, Mammuthus primigenus tusks have been well preserved. Therefore, Mammuthus primigenus is the only extinct proboscidan which consistently provides high quality, carvable ivory. An African elephant tusk can grow to 3.5 meters in length. Enamel is only present on the tusk tip in young animals. It is soon worn off and not replaced. Whole cross-sections of proboscidean tusks are rounded or oval. Dentine composes 95% of the tusk and will sometimes display broad concentric bands. Cementum, which can be thick in extinct genera, covers the outside of the tusk. Cementum can present a layered appearance, particularly in mammoth. Polished cross-sections of elephant and mammoth ivory dentine display uniquely characteristic Schreger lines. Schreger lines are commonly referred to as cross-hatchings, engine turnings, or stacked chevrons. Schreger lines can be divided into two categories. The easily seen lines which are closest to the cementum are the outer Schreger lines. The faintly discernable lines found around the tusk nerve or pulp cavities are the inner Schreger lines. The intersections of Schreger lines form angles. These Schreger angles appear in two forms: concave angles and convex angles. Concave angles have slightly concave sides and open to the medial (inner) area of the tusk. Convex angles have somewhat convex sides and open to the lateral (outer) area of the tusk. Outer Schreger angles, both concave and convex, are acute in extinct proboscidea and obtuse in extant proboscidea. A photocopy machine is used to capture Schreger angles from mammoth and elephant ivory cross-sections. The cross-section is placed on the glass plate of a photocopy machine. A blue photocopy transparency sheet may be placed between the object and and the glass plate to enhance the detail of the photocopy. Enlargement of the photocopy may also improve the image and facilitate the measurement process. After a photocopy of the ivory cross-section has been obtained, Schreger angles may be marked and measured. Use a pen or pencil and a ruler to mark and extend selected outer Schreger angle lines. NOTE: Only outer Schreger angles should be used in this test.
(Odobenus rosmarus) Walrus tusk ivory comes from two modified upper canines. The tusks of a Pacific walrus may attain a length of one meter. Walrus teeth are also commercially carved and traded. The average walrus tooth has a rounded, irregular peg shape and is approximately 5cm in length. The tip of a walrus tusk has an enamel coating which is worn away during the animal's youth. Fine longitudinal cracks, which appear as radial cracks in cross-section, originate in the cementum and penetrate the dentine. These cracks can be seen throughout the length of the tusk. Whole cross-sections of walrus tusks are generally oval with widely spaced indentations. The dentine is composed of two types: primary dentine and secondary dentine (often called osteodentine). Primary dentine has a classical ivory appearance. Secondary dentine looks marble or oatmeal-like. This type of secondary dentine is diagnostic for walrus tusk ivory.
The dentine in walrus teeth is mainly primary dentine. The center of the tooth may contain a small core of apparent secondary dentine. The dentine is completely surrounded by a cementum layer. Enamel may or may not be present according to the extent to which the tooth has been carved or worn. A cross-section of a walrus tooth will show very thick cementum with prominent cementum rings. Concentric rings in walrus teeth are due to hypercementosis. The dentine is separated from the cementum by a clearly defined narrow transition ring.
(Physeter catodon and Orcinus orca) Sperm whale teeth can be quite large. The average height is approximately twenty centimeters. Killer whale teeth are smaller. Both species display conically shaped teeth with a small amount of enamel at the tips. The rest of the tooth is covered by cementum. Whole cross-sections of killer whale and sperm whale teeth are rounded or oval (figure). In addition, killer whale teeth show two slight peripheral indentations. The dentine is deposited in a progressive laminar fashion. As a result of this laminar deposition, killer and sperm whale teeth will show prominent concentric dentine rings in cross-section. Killer whale teeth may also display a faint rosette pattern in the dentine cross-section. The dentine is separated from the cementum by a clearly defined transition ring.
(Monodon monoceros) The narwhale is a rarely seen arctic whale. The male of this species has a single left tusk that is a modified upper incisor. The tusk is spirally twisted, usually in an counter-clockwise direction. In a mature specimen the tusk can be from two to seven meters long. Enamel may be present at the tip of the tusk. The cementum frequently displays longitudinal cracks which follow the depressed areas of the spiral pattern. As a result, narwhal tusk cross-sections are rounded with peripheral indentations. The cementum is separated from the dentine by a clearly defined transition ring. Like killer and sperm whale teeth, the dentine can display prominent concentric rings. The pulp cavity extends throughout most of the length of the tusk giving cross-sections a hollow interior.
(Hippopotamus amphibius) Upper and lower canine and incisors are the most common sources for hippo ivory. Each type of tooth has distinctive gross morphology. Close examination of a cross-section of hippo dentine with the aid of a 10X hand lens reveals a tightly packed series of fine concentric lines. These lines can be regularly or irregularly spaced. The orientation of the lines will follow the overall shape of the particular tooth. The center of the tooth may display an interstitial zone (TIZ). This interstitial zone represents the growth convergence of the developing dentine. The hippo's curved upper canines are oval to rounded in cross-section. In the uprocessed state, a deep longitudinal indentation extends for the length of the tooth on the inner surface of the curve. A broad longitudinal band of enamel covers approximately two-thirds of the surface area of the tooth. This enamel band is frequently removed during the carving process. The surface which is not coated with enamel displays a very thin layer of cementum. This may also be removed during processing. The interstitial zone in the upper canine is a curved line or broadly arched line.
The lower canines are the hippo's largest teeth. They are strongly curved. In cross section, the lower canines are triangular. Raw lower canines will display a faint longitudinal indentation, a marked rippling of the surface and an approximately two-thirds coverage with enamel. Like the upper canine, a thin layer of cementum exists in the areas not covered with enamel. And, as with the upper canines , these surface characteristics are frequently removed during processing. (Phacochoerus aethiopicus) Wart hog ivory comes from the animal's upper and lower canine teeth. These tusks are strongly curved and have generally squared cross-sections. Full length to near full length furrows and a longitudinal enamel band with approximately one-half to two-thirds coverage mark the tusk's surface in the raw, unprocessed state. The interstitial zone is a narrow line. Wart hog ivory tends to have a mottled appearance. Examination of a cross-section with a 10X hand lens reveals that wart hog dentine shows irregularly spaced concentric lines of varying thicknesses.
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Click to see cross section of sperm whale tooth
